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David Montgomery 1927 -2011

David-Montgomery_Image by Josh BrownRicordo di David Montgomery, storico del movimento operaio americano e attivista della sinistra radicale

David Montgomery 1927 -2011

di Jon Wiener*

David Montgomery, uno dei fondatori della ” New Labor History ” negli Stati Uniti, un uomo che ha ispirato una generazione di attivisti e storici, è morto il 2 dicembre. Aveva 84 anni. David ha vissuto una vita straordinaria: sulla lista nera in quanto organizzatore sindacale negli anni ’50, venti anni dopo fu nominato Farnam Professor di Storia a Yale. Anche come Farnam Professor rimase un animale sostanzialmente politico, lavorando con i sindacalisti locali, bianchi e neri, a New Haven e altrove.

Non dimenticherò mai il modo in cui David raccontava di essere diventato un accademico. Come sindacalista comunista nei giorni più bui del maccartismo, trascorse “ogni singolo giorno negli anni cinquanta” nelle fabbriche, lavorando soprattutto con il sindacato dei macchinisti a St. Paul dal 1951 al 1960. Iniziò alla Honeywell di Minneapolis, l’FBI lo fece licenziare. Ma, come spiegò in una meravigliosa intervista del 1981 per la Radical History Review con Mark Naison e Paul Buhle, per sbarazzarsi di lui la società dovette chiudere l’intera divisione, perché per i lavoratori “l’ingiustizia fatta a uno di loro era un’ingiustizia fatta a tutti” .

Si trasferì in officine più piccole, continuando la sua attività sindacale, e sempre l’FBI lo seguiva e lo faceva licenziare. “Infine,” mi disse, “l’unico lavoro che ho potuto ottenere è stato in una bottega con un solo altro lavoratore. Ho portato quel tipo nel sindacato e l’FBI non è riuscito a farmi licenziare “.

A quel punto, disse, “mi sono reso conto che mi avevano battuto, così ho smesso e sono diventato uno storico”.

Si iscrisse a un corso di specializzazione presso l’Università del Minnesota ed ottenne un dottorato nel 1962. L’anno successivo trovò lavoro come assistente presso l’Università di Pittsburgh. Nel 1967 Knopf pubblicò il suo libro Beyond Equality, un pionieristico studio del movimento operaio nell’era della Ricostruzione. Laddove gli storici si concentravano sulla Ricostruzione come momento in cui il Nord si era imposto sul Sud bianco, Montgomery mostrò come i lavoratori avevano sollevato questioni di potere economico e giustizia economica nel Nord. Il conflitto di classe nel Nord, concludeva, “è stato lo scoglio su cui sono naufragati i sogni dei repubblicani radicali”.

Ho usato come testo La caduta della Camera del Lavoro (Fall of the House of Labor, 1987) di Montgomery molte volte, e rimane un lavoro ricco e convincente. Mentre la maggior parte di noi ha preferito concentrarsi sui giorni gloriosi del movimento operaio degli anni ’30 e ’40, David si dedicò intensamente e a lungo sulla sua sconfitta tra il 1890 e il 1920. Iniziò da qui, con un vivido ritratto della varietà di esperienze lavorative in America a cavallo del secolo, dai lavoratori non qualificati sulle banchine dei porti alla élite dei produttori di ferro, mostrò come questi diversi gruppi si unirono per formare nel 1912 il Partito Socialista, che ottenne una percentuale più alta nel voto presidenziale (per Eugene Debs) rispetto a qualunque partito di sinistra, in qualunque epoca, e si chiese perché questa organizzazione immensa e potente non fosse sopravvissuta alla repressione della Red Scare (la paura rossa, il nome dato a quel periodo di intenso anticomunismo, ndt) per riprendere invece negli anni ‘20.

David è sempre stato in prima linea per il lavoro e per i diritti civili. Quando gli impiegati di Yale scioperarono nel 1984 per il riconoscimento del sindacato, “era lui il principale ispiratore dei gruppi di lavoratori organizzati, prima, durante e dopo lo sciopero”, dice Jean-Christophe Agnew del dipartimento di storia di Yale. “La fermezza di David sulla solidarietà e il rispetto delle linee di picchetto incoraggiarono molti colleghi incerti, soprattutto i docenti con meno anzianità, più vulnerabili. Lui era una roccia”.

Nella sua intervista alla Radical History Review, pubblicata nel libro della Pantheon Visioni della Storia da MARHO, l’Organizzazione degli storici Radical, Naison e Buhle gli chiesero della sua esperienza nel Partito Comunista. La cosa buona del Partito Comunista, rispose, anche negli anni ’50, era che “più che in ogni altra organizzazione del tempo, al suo interno era possibile collegare l’analisi marxista ad una effettiva azione quotidiana.” E il Partito Comunista si è sempre impegnato per unire lavoratori neri e bianchi. La cosa negativa, ammise, è che la vita intellettuale del partito era “soffocante”, il lavoro creativo per gli scrittori comunisti cominciava sempre dopo che avevano lasciato il partito.

Partito che lasciò nel 1957, dopo l’invasione sovietica dell’Ungheria, ma soprattutto perché a quel punto “il partito era diventato praticamente irrilevante per i lavoratori d’America.”. Il Minnesota al tempo aveva un movimento operaio non-comunista e un movimento per la pace e i diritti civili , e “là mi sentivo a casa e potevo darmi da fare con continuità“.

David Montgomery concludeva così la sua intervista alla Radical History Review: “In questo paese, dove le doti necessarie per realizzare una società umana sono tutte intorno a noi, quello che ci serve non è un partito unico, ma molti centri auto-organizzati di lotta popolare e una varietà di iniziative politiche. E tutti quei centri di attività hanno bisogno di imparare dalla storia”.

* NOTA: Mi è sembrato giusto tradurre questo articolo apparso sul sito della rivista The Nation e inviarlo a Liberazione che lo ha pubblicato sabato 10 dicembre (grazie a Michaela per l’indispensabile aiuto!). Il fatto che i quotidiani della sinistra italiana non avessero riportato la notizia della scomparsa del più importante storico del movimento operaio americano mi sembrava una grave dimenticanza. Necrologi sono apparsi sulla Pittsburgh Post-Gazette e sul New York Times. La Labor and Working Class History Association (LAWCHA) ha predisposto una pagina web. Sul sito della Sidney Hillman Foundation sono stati pubblicati articoli di Josh Freeman, Melvyn Dubofsky (che ricorda anche la collaborazione di Montgomery con E.P.Thompson) , David Brody. Sul quotidiano inglese Guardian è uscito un ricordo dello storico Eric Foner. Purtroppo di David Montgomery in italiano è stata pubblicata soltanto la raccolta Rapporti di classe nell’America del primo ‘900 (con introduzione di Elisabetta Benenati Marconi e Vittorio Foa) nel 1980 dalla casa editrice Rosenberg & Sellier. Un piccolo libro dalla copertina verde che proprio in questi giorni sono tornato a leggere. Della mancata traduzione italiana degli altri lavori di Montgomery si lamentava giustamente lo storico Ferdinando Fasce sul Manifesto qualche anno fa consigliando di riprendere in mano The Fall of The House Of  Labour, un libro molto apprezzato e consigliato da Noam Chomsky. Sul ruolo fondamentale svolto da David  Montgomery come punto di riferimento per la generazione di intellettuali e storici radical che era cresciuta nel movement dei sixties segnalo il saggio autobiografico di James Green Fare storia di movimento con “Radical America”:

Lo storico David Montgomery lanciò questo appello attraverso “RA” nel 1970: “ I socialisti americani non possono sperare di sviluppare un’efficace prospettiva teorica per i nostri tempi senza un esame accurato delle aspirazioni attuali degli operai del paese”.  L’appello di Montgomery era autorevole perché veniva da un militante sindacale di grande esperienza, che aveva pagato per le sue simpatie radicali. Aveva lavorato in fabbrica negli anni Cinquanta da comunista e attivista della United Electrical Workers Union, espulsa dal CIO nel 1949 per essersi rifiutata di sostenere le politiche della guerra fredda. Finito sulla lista nera, Montgomery studiò storia all’Università del Minnesota, dove continuò a far politica, incassò altre sconfitte, ma non si rassegnò mai all’idea che le forze reazionarie “avessero spazzato via il movimento”. Il lavoro di Montgomery aiutò i giovani storici radicali a vedere “il movimento operaio” non solo come una burocrazia ossificata e guidata da uomini bianchi ostili ai giovani, ma “come un movimento”. La tendenza egemone della storiografia del movimento operaio, la cosiddetta “Scuola del Wisconsin”, aveva adottato un approccio istituzionalistico, concentrato sull’organizzazione sindacale e fondato sull’assunto che i lavoratori americani avessero una semplice “coscienza del posto” economicistica e fossero politicamente conservatori. Montgomery ci mostrò invece che era esistito un movimento operaio con una coscienza politica e che i lavoratori avevano svolto “un consapevole ruolo di classe“ nei movimenti di protesta della guerra civile e della Ricostruzione “mentre davano vita ai loro sindacati”. Le sue parole ispirarono i redattori di “RA” a guardare fuori dell’università verso il movimento operaio, a partire da un appassionato scavo storico che vide Jim O’Brien e altri dottorandi creare gruppi di studio di storia del lavoro e redigere “un voluminoso regesto commentato su tutte le principali fonti per gli studi sulla classe operaia”. Come ricordò Paul Buhle, “Più il presente si faceva scuro, specie in termini di iniziative politiche della sinistra, più il passato operaio diventava luminoso ”.

Un bel ritratto di Montgomery lo si trova anche nel libro “Taking history to heart: the power of the past in building social movements“  di James R. Green (pag.39-41).

Un autore la cui lettura che non smetto mai di consigliare come Peter Linebaugh ha sottolineato l’importanza dell’asse con lo storico britannico E.P.Thompson nella genesi della “new labor history” ben raccontata in un saggio di Markus Rediker purtroppo non disponibile in italiano:

“Le profonde trasformazioni includevano l’espansione della storia del lavoro al di là di sindacati e partiti politici; una rottura del modello stalinista di sviluppo della classe operaia , una nuova enfasi sulla cultura, la coscienza, il processo lavorativo, e sull’auto-attività (self-activity che potremmo tradurre anche con autonomia) e, più in generale, la democratizzazione della storia del lavoro con l’inserimento di soggetti proletari, soprattutto donne e persone di colore, a lungo escluse dagli annali della storia del lavoro” (Marcus Rediker The Revenge of Crispus Attucks; or, The Atlantic Challenge to American Labor History).   

Sul sito della rivista Acoma è possibile fortunatamente scaricare la preziosa intervista con Herbert Gutman di Bruno Cartosio che colloca la nascita della “new labor history” di Thompson e Montgomery nella crisi del movimento comunista del 1956:

 “La grande rottura, secondo me, viene dopo, sia negli Stati Uniti, sia soprattutto in Inghilterra, dove viene fuori dalla sinistra del Partito laburista, alcuni direbbero dalla destra del Partito comunista, ma di fatto è la sinistra anche del Partito comunista: dalla disillusione nei confronti dello stalinismo”.

La rottura con lo stalinismo non implica mai in Montgomery il rinnegare i meriti dei comunisti americani nè il passaggio dal culto del partito a quello della spontaneità che è stato un “luogo comune al rovescio” che ha predominato nelle file dell’antistalinismo di sinistra e nelle nuove sinistre. Come ben notava Vittorio Foa:  “Importante è infine il rifiuto di Montgomery di contrapporre la base all’organizzazione, come contrapposizione schematica del bene al male. Esemplare al riguardo la discussione sul libro di Jeremy Brecher sugli scioperi. Montgomery osserva che organizzazione non è solo quella centrale e neppure solo quella periferica formale e che vi sono organizzazioni informali alla base degli scioperi non ufficiali, che spontaneità e organizzazione sono due facce della stessa realtà: quello che visto dal centro è spontaneità visto dalla base è organizzazione. La bivalenza del sindacato è sottolineata quando si ricorda « la tenacia con la quale gli operai hanno lottato nel 1922 per difendere nelle miniere, nell’industria della carne e nelle ferrovie quelle stesse unioni che due anni prima avevano represso le loro spinte insurrezionali», così come quando si ricorda l’entusiasmo delle lotte nelle industrie fondamentali nel 1946 sotto la direzione degli stessi dirigenti sindacali che nei quattro anni precedenti avevano combattuto per reprimere l’alto livello di libertà e di controllo conquistato sui luoghi di lavoro quando l’avvento di neri, di donne e di studenti nelle fabbriche aveva trasformato la struttura della classe operaia”.  Purtroppo il dibattito citato da Foa non è mai stato tradotto in italiano ma quel numero della rivista Radical America con l’intervento di Montgomery “Spontaneity and organization” è ora disponibile sul web.

Nell’introduzione Foa sottolineava anche “che gli scritti di Montgomery, insieme con i notevoli libri che in questi ultimi tempi vengono pubblicati sul movimento operaio, servano a ridimensionare quella boria tipicamente europea che guarda con compatimento ad un movimento che non è stato governato da grandi partiti di massa dotati di propria dottrina e propri strumenti di disciplina”.

(continua)

Mi sembra utile proporre un articolo tratto dalla New Left Review I/164, July-August 1987 che meriterebbe una traduzione.

David Montgomery

Marxism and Utopianism in the USA

For more than a century and a quarter Marxism has occupied an important position in American social criticism, but never a dominant one. For most socialists between the 1870s and World War One, Marx had set forth primarily an analysis of the laws of capitalist exploitation and accumulation, which predicted the downfall of a social system that most of the literature advertised in their journals condemned on moral grounds.

The ascendency of Leninism produced parties looking to Marxism for theoretical guidance on physics and painting, as well as the road to power, and precipitated earnest quests for a correct position on each and every issue. None of those parties, however, captured a hegemonic role in the workers’ movement, let alone in the country’s intellectual life. The New Left arose on campuses that were devoid of any form of class analysis. Only in the civil rights movement were there significant continuities of personnel and styles of thought from Marxist movements of the thirties, and even they were carefully disguised. White student activists, scanning bookstores for critiques of a society that had alienated them, usually discovered Marxism either in little red books of exhortations to struggle or in fat, ponderous volumes of cultural criticism.

Those two very different forms of presentation, however, proved to be as well suited to the needs of the revolutionaries of 1967 as Wage Labour and Capital had been to their predecessors in 1907 or Left-Wing Communism: An Infantile Disorder in 1937. Once again Marxism had assumed an historically specific role in American radical discourse, without providing the dominant mode of thought.

Paul Buhle is well situated to analyse the long and complex interaction between Marxism and radical social movements in the United States. [1] A prominent activist in Students for a Democratic Society during the sixties, he was a founder of the monthly Radical America—which has promoted non-parliamentarian social struggles and investigated their historical roots—and was the guiding spirit behind the occasional issues of Cultural Correspondence. From C.L.R. James, Buhle learned to view popular culture as a source of confrontations with hierarchical authorities as important as conflicts at the point of production, and indeed inseparable from them. From his comrade Mari Jo Buhle, author of the path-breaking Women and American Socialism, 1870–1920, he learned to consider women’s liberation and women’s solidarities as central to the struggle for socialism, rather than tangential as most American Marxists had thought. [2] From his years of directing the Oral History of the American Left project he learned to appreciate the diversity of American Marxisms and their deep roots in immigrant cultures. All these experiences have helped Buhle write a history of Marxism in the United States that is simultaneously committed to the heritage of the American Left and critical of it. It is both a highly personal (at times idiosyncratic) encounter with that heritage and a perceptive analysis designed and demanding to be shared with others.

 Buhle sets out on a path different from most existing histories of socialist thought because he dismisses Engels’s Anti-Dühring out of hand. Unlike Marxist chroniclers from F.A. Sorge and Morris Hillquit to the present, Buhle refuses to think in terms of a utopian phase that was subsequently repudiated, followed by a protracted struggle to create a true vanguard party. [3] On the contrary, he argues: ‘Immigrant Marxism and utopian radicalism . . . came to share a common ground neither could have anticipated’ (p. 14). Nineteenth-century American workers and middleclass reformers who ‘interpreted industrial degradation and centralized financial power as rents in the social fabric’ to be repaired by ‘still further democratization’ (p. 23), learned to think about class and socialism from their immigrant comrades. That does not mean that the former came to accept the view that the sole object of the movement was to organize workers to capture the machinery of state, so that it might expropriate the expropriators. The Americans’ efforts to instruct the largely-German bearers of Marxism in the decisive importance of the battle against racial oppression, of women’s struggles for citizenship, and of popular self-activity within civil society made a major contibution to the worldwide movement for socialism. Not only did they contribute significantly to the ambience of Debsian socialism; they also anticipated by as much as a century the ‘new social forces’ that have surfaced in European Marxist writings during the last two decades.

 Although I am not persuaded of the distinctly American origins of this encounter, I do share Buhle’s evaluation. Even the German–American social revolutionaries of Chicago and elsewhere in the 1880s escaped the Kautskyian mould that was then being impressed on the Social Democrats in their homeland. Buhle’s narrow and negative assessment of the German influence prevents him from exploring this comparison, but it would seem to underscore, rather than challenge, his argument that there was no historic defeat of utopian by scientific socialism.

 The Impact of Modern Science

Buhle has no interest in Engels’s philosophy of nature. On the contrary, he celebrates the persistent influence of religious sensibility, spiritualism, temperance, Christology, and liberation theology, positing, as the goal of the popular struggle against capitalism, a universal ‘cultural experience rendered both holy and fun’ (p. 263). Buhle’s insistence keeps the reader’s mind focused on the motivations that have impelled individual men and women to rebel against social injustice. Few of us will die for the sake of a correct analysis of economic forces, much as we need it to keep us from a futile death. Nevertheless, Buhle’s dismissive attitude toward Marxist conceptions of science (and toward the intellectual impact of modern science itself) obscures the importance of the Enlightenment’s heritage, of personal battles against religious obscurantism, and even of Darwin in the process by which those who would change the world have changed themselves. Just think how many Italian anarchists named their sons Bruno, or consider the liberating effect of Robert Ingersoll’s agnosticism on late nineteenth-century radicals in the Middle West. All that is part of the ‘common ground’, whose configuration is traced in this book.

What Buhle identifies as the historic contribution of immigrant socialists to the international development of Marxism appears in the link they forged between the social relations of production and national identity. The immigrant journalists, pamphleteers, poets, and playwrights who propagated the socialist gospel in the New World were as deeply rooted in their sense of ethnicity as they were in their sense of class. Although most historians have detected only self-isolation in this phenomenon, Buhle rightly argues that the ethnic bases of German, Jewish, South Slavic, Italian, Finnish, and other Marxists in America forced them to reject the ‘illusion of abstract, universal class consciousness . . . to be achieved by imposing a dominant culture over subordinate cultures’ (p. 19), and thus to anticipate debates over nationality and class that have become essential to twentieth-century Marxism. The early life of the Communist Party was also intensely localistic and was based on the language federations that had broken away from the Socialist Party. Communists’ sensitivity to the National Question occupied a special place in the history of American socialism and of world communism. It prepared the party to come to grips specifically with the liberation of Afro-Americans.

The interwar encounter of Marxism with Black American radicalism yielded a new assessment of industrialization and of the bourgeois democratic revolution in the United States, which was provoked by W.E.B. Du Bois’s magisterial work Black Reconstruction in America. Du Bois denounced the pervasive intellectual blindness that discerned ‘no part of our labour movement; no part of our industrial triumph; no part of our religious experience’ in Black Americans’ struggles against slavery and wage labour on the land. [4] Here was a book that shattered the mould in which both progressive and socialist historians had previously cast their images of the American past. It appeared, moreover, just at the time when the Popular Front was opening new debates over the path to socialism and the critical analysis of culture and nationality was assuming an increasingly important place in Marxist discourse.

The spectacular rise of industrial unions, the ability of the New Deal to incorporate the new unionism into its reformist response to the Great Depression, together with the intense loyalties of immigrant workers, and especially their children, to both the cio and Roosevelt, lent a distinctive cast to the Popular Front in the United States. The Communist Party captured a dominant position within the American Left primarily through its role in the new unions and its recruitment of youth from the ethnic communities most strongly attracted to the New Deal. This meant, writes Buhle, that ‘no basis for a Socialist constituency seemed to exist outside the Popular Front, and no cultural prefiguration of the new society within the old seemed to be possible except the idea . . . of a radical modernism’ (p. 146). The Communists repudiated the revolutionary syndicalist part of their own heritage, but they made no attempt to derive from their Popular Front experience a new pluralistic vision of how diverse social groupings, fighting in factories, neighbourhoods and legislative chambers, might achieve socialism in an advanced industrial country. On the contrary, their strategic vision remained defensive, their conception of the road to socialism transfixed by the storming of the Winter Palace. Neither they nor anyone else reread the pioneering analyses of the modern capitalist state that had been produced on the eve of the Great War by William English Walling, Charles Ruthenberg, Louis Fraina, and others. The Socialist Party of the thirties fared far worse: it was bogged down in a hopeless generational split. Trotskyists and Lovestoneites warned against labour’s surrender to bourgeois politics, but they focused their alternative strategies on the point of production and on battling the Communists for union leadership.

 Popular Front Communism celebrated America’s music, film and literature, where it found and encouraged rich democratic traditions. The party abandoned its earlier search for ‘proletarian literature’, which had been futile in any case, because it had neglected the ethnic (multi-class) character of the cultures in which American workers actually lived. Although the Left’s literary output of the late 1930s suggested that current popular struggles would give American democracy a new lease on life, and thus prevent reactionaries from turning back labour’s gains, they seldom so much as hinted at a socialist outcome. Outside the Communists’ orbit important Marxist critiques of culture did emerge and circulate among a small, well educated readership, that was ‘intensely curious about itself’ (p. 160).

V.F. Calverton’s Modern Quarterly (1923–1940) made literary criticism the main vehicle for its analysis of contemporary society. Although its contributors were steeped in the Great Tradition of intellectual history and contemptuous of mass culture, they converted the study of literature into a form of social criticism, aimed verbal barrages at Victorian sex codes, and kept the journal’s pages open to fresh ideas of all sorts. The most influential progressive intellectuals of the day often moved in this orbit. Among them were Mary and Charles Beard, Vernon Parrington, Granville Hicks, and John Dewey. The failure of American labour to produce a new political movement, the Moscow Trials, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, and the coming of war in Europe and renewed repression of the Left in the usa brought their discourse with Marxism to a halt. Nevertheless, argues Buhle, it was their critique of America’s cultural life and development, rather than the workplace-oriented Marxist parties, that turned out in retrospect to have provided the intellectual bridge to the New Left.

 Communism and the New Left

The postwar years proved to be very inhospitable to the Communist Party and to workerist conceptions of a revitalized American democracy. The party lacked the prestige that sustained the French and Italian parties through the attacks of the fifties, a prestige based on the combination of union struggles and leadership of a domestic battle against fascist rulers. The greatly enlarged population of university students in the fifties and sixties considered the Communists alien and manipulative, perceived no heroism or creativity in the working class, and, if they were social critics, believed both existing capitalism and existing socialism to be dominated by ruthless power elites. Buhle is at his best when he reconstructs the intellectual climate of those years. Marxist faith in historical progress had foundered on the prospect of annihilation by nuclear war. Moreover, the students had been immersed in mass culture all their lives and shared none of the historic Marxist reverence for the printed word and dialectical argument. Sons and daughters of Communists drew political inspiration from scholars like C. Wright Mills and William A. Williams, who offered them a middleAmerican critique of America, oblivious to class and scornful of the thirties’ celebration of ‘the people’, but advocating personal resistance to commercialized, repressive and imperialistic conformity. Their base of operations was not the factory but the campus. Their call to action came from the civil rights movement.

 Out of the sit-ins, freedom rides, voter registration drives, and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party emerged uncompromising hostility toward the state and toward bureaucracy in all its forms, a determination to expose and root out the poverty that had been carefully hidden by postwar urban renewal, a hunger for participatory democracy, and an assertion of revolutionary Black nationalism. The network of underground newspapers, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, the Students for a Democratic Society, and an insatiable appetite for critical analyses of society were energizing student struggles even before the government’s initiation of all-out war against Vietnam brought in its wake massive and ever angrier peace demonstrations, the murders of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, and four summers of urban insurrections.

 It was in this context that Marxism returned to American political discourse, arguably making its most influential appearance ever. All aspects of life were subjected to critiques that at least employed neo-Marxist vocabularies. Revived Marxism, however, addressed an intellectual agenda with deep, if little known, historic roots. In Buhle’s words: ‘The New Left began where the Old Left had halted: with the race question, and with popular culture. It reinvented the Woman Question on the very terrain where the Socialist Party had failed. It absorbed the moral and spiritual critique of imperialism that no Leninist movement had been able to formulate. Most of all, it recuperated a Utopianism which had been regarded since before 1920 as pathetic and unworthy of revolutionary consideration, but which remained deep in the American character’ (pp. 256–7).

 A major turning point arrived between 1970 and 1972—one which deserves closer analysis than this book provides. White, Black and Chicano workers entered into industrial struggles that disrupted established collective bargaining. Challenges to social hierarchies and to women’s subordination appeared far beyond the campus boundaries. In the wake of theus invasion of Cambodia and the Kent State and Jackson State killings, the peace movement spread to the factory gates and military camps. Richard Nixon overrode the constitution to retain the presidency, only to be dramatically evicted from office. But it was at this very moment that the New Left fragmented. Marxist sects, each with its own guru, abandoned the campus for industrial organizing, but with little of the unitary sense that had formerly characterized the Communists. New Politics parliamentarians escorted the widespread popular outrage into the Democratic Party. Urban reform movements based on Afro-American constituencies began to capture city after city, only to find themselves captives of finance capital. The ‘greening of America’ became literary and sartorial high fashion. In time only the feminist movement had kept alive the vital link between personal life experience and political struggle that had earlier sustained in various ways both the New Left and its Marxist predecessors.

Buhle describes the several academic forms of Marxism that survived the declining movement of the seventies, devoting special attention to historians, and somewhat slighting comparable developments in economics, literary criticism, sociology, law and philosophy. At times his arguments in the concluding chapters become obscure. What, for example, does a confrontation between ‘historicism’ and ‘the universal semiotic’ mean (p. 263)? Like earlier American militants who have watched their once mighty movements shrivel, Buhle looks in the end for inspiration from abroad. Not from the Soviet Union or China, this time, but from Latin America’s liberation theology. Today’s revolutionaries in every industrialized country, however, are searching for secure political footholds in societies that seem more and more like quicksand. Buhle has offered them a glimpse of a past in which the ‘new social forces’ of our time were far from absent, in hopes that he might assist a continuation of the interchange between Marxism and the analysis of race, gender, nationality and culture that was so important a part of the American (and, let me add, not only American) experience. But renewed social analysis, he concludes, must await renewed social action.

 1) Paul Buhle, Marxism in the United States: Remapping the History of the American Left, Verso/Haymarket, London 1987.

2) Mari Jo Buhle, Women and American Socialism, 1870–1920, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1981.

 3) Philip S. Foner and Brewster Chamberlin, eds., Friedrich A. Sorge’s Labor Movement in the United States: A History of the American Working Class from Colonial Times to 1890, Greenwood, Westport 1977; Morris Hillquit, History of Socialism in the United States, 5th ed., Funk, New York 1910.

4) W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America, Harcourt, Brace, New York 1935, p. 727.

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